Språktypologi F7: Diakron typologi. Språk förändras kontinuerligt: Externa faktorer, ex. språkkontakt: -vid tillfällig kontakt: I. Ord1. substantiv 2.

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Presentationens avskrift:

Språktypologi F7: Diakron typologi

Språk förändras kontinuerligt: Externa faktorer, ex. språkkontakt: -vid tillfällig kontakt: I. Ord1. substantiv 2. adverb 3. verb -vid långvarig kontakt: I. Grammatiska strukturer II. Fonologi

F7: Diakron typologi Språk förändras kontinuerligt: Externa faktorer, ex. språkkontakt: -vid långvarig kontakt: ”Sprachbund”/”linguistic area”: ett geografiskt område med en grupp av tre eller fler språk som delar strukturella drag till följd av språkkontakt snarare än till följd av arv eller slump. Exempel: -Balkan, där språk från fyra olika grenar av den indoeuropeiska familjen talas -Indien, där språk från fyra olika språkfamiljer talas

F7: Diakron typologi Språk förändras kontinuerligt: ”Sprachbund”/”linguistic area”, ex. Indien: Yes/No-question: ”Did you sell the horse?” Standard Kannada: Kudri kwai-a the.horse you.sold-question.particle Standard Urdu: Kya ghoŗii dii what the.horse you.sold Kupwar Urdu:ghoďi di ya kya the.horse you sold what Kupwar Marathi: ghoďi dil ǝ skay Kupwar Kannada: kudrikwaiyan the.horseyou.soldwhat

Språk förändras kontinuerligt: ”Sprachbund”/”linguistic area”, ex. Indien: Indirect question formation: Standard Urdu: bol-o [ki k ǝ hã g ǝ y-a tha k ǝ l] Tell that where you-did go yesterday ”Tell (me) where you went yesterday!” Standard Kannada: [ramana ellige kalasa beku anta] samasy Ramana where send should that doubtful ”It is not clear where to send Ramana” Kupwar Kannada:heļri [ki y ǝ lli hog idi ninni] Tell that where you did.go yesterday ”Tell me where you went yesterday”

F7: Diakron typologi Språk förändras kontinuerligt: Interna faktorer, strive towards: I. Consistency II. Economy III. Simplicity De språkuniversalier som finns inbyggda i språket påverkar denna process.

F7: Diakron typologi Tankar om typologi & språkförändring: -språk i ”states”/fasta tillstånd & språk i ”stages”/stadier: Latin: väldigt flexibel SOV-ordföljd Franska: mycket rigid SVO-ordföljd Förändring av grundläggande ordföljd, två teorier: Försvinnande morfologisk kasusmarkering. Kasusmarkering på nominalfraser ger mer eller mindre flexibel ordföljd. Språket är inte konsekvent, förändring innebär en strävan efter konsekvens -språk passerar genom olika ”stages”/stadier (connectivity; Greenberg 1978)

F7: Diakron typologi Tankar om typologi & språkförändring: Greenberg (1978) -stability/stabilitet: sannolikheten att ett språk kommer att byta stadium/tillstånd(”state”) -frequency/frekvens: sannolikheten att ett språk kommer att byta till ett visst stadium/tillstånd

F7: Diakron typologi Grammatikalisering: en process där lexikalt morfem blir mer och mer grammatiska *den lexikala betydelsen försvagas och blir mer allmän *användningen av morfemet blir mer frekvent och till slut obligatorisk *formen reduceras fonologiskt (blir kortare/mindre komplex) Processen följer alltid samma mönster: (fritt) lexikalt morfem > fritt grammatiskt morfem > (bundet) grammatiskt affix > fusionerad markör > noll (dvs. det försvinner)

F7: Diakron typologi Grammatikalisering: exempel: -demonstrativa pronomen > bestämda artiklar -räkneordet ’en/ett’ > obestämd artikel -adpositioner > kasusmarkörer -personliga pronomen > kongruensmarkörer på verb -verb med betydelsen ’vilja’, vara tvungen’, ’gå’, ’komma’ > futurum -reflexiva pronomen > passivmarkörer

F7: Diakron typologi Inferring diachrony from synchrony, ex. Ngayarta:

F7: Diakron typologi Inferring diachrony from synchrony, ex. Ngayarta: -O’Grady, Voegelin & Voegelin, Languages of the World: Indo-Pacific fascicle 6 (1966) Cognate densityClassification 71+%different dialects of the same language 51-70%different languages of the same subgroup 26-50%different subgroups of the same group 16-25%different groups of the same family Under 15%different families of the same phylum Ngayarta-språk enligt denna klassifikation: Jurruru, Martuthunira, Ngarla, Ngarluma-Kariyarra, Nhuwala, Nyamal, Palyku, Panyjima, Pinikura, Yinjubarndi-Kurrama.

F7: Diakron typologi Inferring diachrony from synchrony, ex. Ngayarta: -O’Grady, Proto-Ngayarda Phonology (1966) -In the better-known languages of the subgroup there is a mechanism that transforms active verbs to passive. -The Proto-Pama-Nyungan indirect object marker *-ku~-yi in the Ngayarta languages marks objects in general. -The Proto-Pama-Nyungan verbal suffix *-lku has in the Ngayarta languages undergone a shift in reference, from future/optative to present tense. Table: Consonant phonemes of Proto-Ngayarda Bilabial Lamino- dental Apico- alveolar Apico- domal Lamino- alveolar Dorso- velar Stopsp* t ̪* t**c*k* Nasalsm* n ̪* n* ṇ*ṇ* ñ*ŋ* Laterals l ̪* l* ļ*ļ* ḻ*ḻ* Flapr* Glidesw*R*y*

F7: Diakron typologi Inferring diachrony from synchrony, ex. Ngayarta: Alan Dench, ’Descent and Diffusion: The Complexity of the Pilbara Situation’, in Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance, Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald & R. M. W. Dixon, editors, (2001) Phonological innovations. Two main innovations: lenition of intervocalic stops + cluster simplification. - Intervocalic lenitions are extremely common in the world’s languages, and may have arisen independently in the languages in question. - Cluster simplification are also common cross-linguistically. Morphophonemic alterations: One of the features that O’Grady (1966:75) sees as characteristic of “western languages” is a shared rule of “morphophonemic alternation in the form of the ‘agent- instrumental’ suffix *-lu/-ngku, conditioned by the length of the word stem.” In many Pilbara languages the allomorph –ngku is used on disyllabic stems, and –lu on polysyllabic stems. The same allomorphs are in use in the Western Desert languages, but there they are however semantically conditioned: The suffix –ngku is used on stems denoting lower animates and inanimates, and –lu on proper names and on stems denoting humans. - Dench notes that this semantic basis for the conditioning is present to some extent in all Pilbara languages. Thus there are obviously areal tendencies, but it is still quite impossible to conclude what is shared through descent and what through areal diffusion.

F7: Diakron typologi Inferring diachrony from synchrony, ex. Ngayarta: Alan Dench, ’Descent and Diffusion: The Complexity of the Pilbara Situation’, in Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance, Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald & R. M. W. Dixon, editors, (2001) Case-marking patterns: While in the northernmost languages ergative/absolutive marking is employed on nominals and nominative/accusative marking on pronouns, the ‘middle languages’ have consistent nominative/accusative case marking, and the southern languages tripartite marking for nominals and ergative/absolutive marking for all pronouns except for first person singular (which follows the nominative/accusative pattern). -The reconstruction of an original system out of this variation would be difficult.